Geomorphology
1.1 Universe and Earth's Origin
Origin theories: Big Bang, nebular hypothesis; formation of the solar system; geological history of Earth and major evolutionary stages.
1.2 Earth's Interior
Structure and composition of crust, mantle, core; seismic waves (P & S waves), shadow zones; evidence for internal structure.
1.3 Rocks and Minerals
Types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic; rock cycle; major minerals forming the crust and their characteristics.
1.4 Earth Movements
Endogenic & exogenic forces; isostasy; continental drift; seafloor spreading; plate tectonics; earthquakes; volcanoes; tsunamis; orogenesis.
1.5 Landforms and Evolution
Landforms formed by rivers, wind, glaciers, waves; erosional and depositional features; landscape evolution over geological time.
Climatology
2.1 Atmosphere
Composition of atmospheric gases; structure of layers — troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere.
2.2 Insolation and Temperature
Solar radiation, Earth’s heat budget; factors influencing temperature distribution; temperature inversion and its impacts.
2.3 Pressure and Winds
Pressure belts of the world; planetary & local winds; monsoons, jet streams, land/sea breezes; global atmospheric circulation.
2.4 Weather Systems
Air masses; fronts; tropical cyclones, temperate cyclones; thunderstorms; tornadoes; associated weather patterns.
2.5 Water in the Atmosphere
Humidity, condensation, cloud formation; forms of precipitation — rain, snow, hail; global rainfall distribution.
2.6 Climatic Zones
Major climatic types (equatorial, monsoon, desert, tundra, polar); global climate change and human impacts.
Oceanography
3.1 Ocean Relief
Major features: continental shelf, slope, abyssal plains, mid-ocean ridges, trenches; mapping and classification.
3.2 Temperature and Salinity
Distribution of temperature and salinity in oceans; thermocline; factors affecting variations.
3.3 Ocean Movements
Waves, tides, and currents (warm & cold); their effects on climate, navigation, and fishing.
3.4 Marine Resources
Biotic resources (fish), mineral resources (manganese nodules), and energy resources (tidal, wave, OTEC).
3.5 Oceanic Phenomena
Coral reefs, coral bleaching; El Niño & La Niña and their global climatic impacts.
Biogeography
4.1 Soil
Soil formation, types, soil profile; erosion, degradation processes; conservation techniques.
4.2 Vegetation
Factors controlling distribution of plants & animals; major biomes; deforestation & conservation strategies.
4.3 Environmental Geography
Ecology basics; ecosystems and biodiversity; environmental degradation; conservation; natural hazards (floods, droughts, landslides); climate change.